THE EARLIEST CIVILIZATIONS – FOCUSING THEME

A civilization is more than just a group of people living together; it marks a significant advancement in human social organization. In a civilization, people establish complex systems of governance, create social hierarchies, and develop institutions like writing systems. Civilizations also lead to the creation of cities, the development of art, the advancement of science and mathematics, and the invention of new technologies and practices that improve daily life. For human societies to thrive, two key elements are essential: a temperate climate and abundant sources of food and freshwater. When these conditions are met, they lead to a surplus of food, which in turn supports improved health, longer life expectancy, and higher income levels.

As societies gain access to surplus resources and have more leisure time, people move beyond basic survival activities like hunting and gathering and begin to focus on more complex pursuits, including the creation of civilizations. This shift began around 3500 BCE, marking the start of the Bronze Age. During this period, the Fertile Crescent, an area that includes parts of modern-day Iraq, Syria, and Egypt, was home to some of the world’s earliest civilizations. The discovery of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, around 3000 BCE allowed people to create stronger tools and weapons, accelerating technological and social advancements.

In Mesopotamia, which is present-day Iraq, one of the world’s first written languages was developed, alongside the first organized religion and the foundations of modern mathematics. The Sumerians, who lived in southern Mesopotamia, are credited with creating the first city-states, and archaeological discoveries have uncovered luxury goods like musical instruments, jewelry, and game boards. These artifacts suggest the existence of a wealthy class in Sumerian society, as only the affluent could afford such items. Additionally, the Sumerians traded with other civilizations, evidenced by their use of metal, a resource not locally available.

The Babylonian Empire, which emerged around 2000 BCE, further advanced these developments. Babylonians made significant strides in astronomy, being able to track fixed stars, observe the sun’s movements, and predict lunar eclipses. Their mathematicians developed a base-60 system, which is still used today to measure time and angles. The Code of Hammurabi, a Babylonian law code, provides insight into the early human concern for abstract concepts like justice, as it outlined severe punishments for criminals.

Meanwhile, another major civilization was flourishing in the Nile River valley in Egypt. The Egyptians are renowned for their architectural achievements, particularly the construction of the Great Pyramids, which demonstrate not only advanced engineering skills but also the ability to plan and execute large-scale projects without the aid of modern technology. Despite their accomplishments, much remains unknown about the Indus Valley Civilization in present-day Pakistan, as historians have yet to decipher its written language. Nonetheless, these early civilizations laid the foundations for the complex societies that would follow.

THE EARLIEST CIVILIZATIONS

Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.:

1. Based on the information provided, which of the following statements is NOT correct?
   A. The earliest known civilizations emerged in what is now the Middle East.
   B. The written records of the ancient Indus Valley civilization remain undeciphered.
   C. Babylonian mathematicians established systems and conventions that continue to be used today.
   D. Early civilizations discovered that copper was more effective than bronze for making tools.
2. Based on the information provided, which of the following is an opinion rather than a fact?
   A. The presence of luxury items among Sumerian artifacts suggests that some Sumerians were wealthy.
   B. Archaeologists have found clear evidence of trade between the Sumerians and other ancient civilizations.
   C. The foundations of modern mathematics were developed by the Mesopotamians.
   D. A Mesopotamian writer created the first known work of literary fiction.

1. Based on the information provided, which of the following statements is NOT correct?

✅ D. Early civilizations discovered that copper was more effective than bronze for making tools.

🟩 Explanation:
This is incorrect because bronze (a mixture of copper and tin) is stronger and more durable than copper alone. That’s why early civilizations transitioned from the Copper Age to the Bronze Age.

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2. Based on the information provided, which of the following is an opinion rather than a fact?

✅ C. The foundations of modern mathematics were developed by the Mesopotamians.

🟩 Explanation:
While Mesopotamians made major contributions to mathematics, saying they laid the “foundations of modern mathematics” is a subjective interpretation. It’s an opinion, not a universally agreed-upon fact.